In our paper we wish to concentrate on archives, as one of the more multi-aspectual elements of the material culture of archaeology. For our analysis we have selected the specific problem of the comparison and assessment of the different contexts of the oldest examples of the application of aerial archaeology in European archaeology, in order to use this as the background for the assessment of the value of Polish archives and use them for the reconstruction of different aspects of the history of Polish aerial photography. Information illustrating the historical background to the development of aerial archaeology has been collected on the basis of the available literature. The characterisation of the Polish example of the use of this technique, on the probably most famous Polish archaeological site at Biskupin (an extensive water-logged Late Bronze Age & Early Iron age settlement), is based on the rich collection of archival materials which, although it has been partially published, has never been analysed from this point of view. 

       In the past few years one may observe a clear increase in interest at aerial archaeology in Poland. In many centres (including Poznan) attempts have been made to introduce a methodology based on the best traditions of the British school. One of the problems raised by Polish archaeologists involved in aerial archaeology has been the determination of the manner of development of this technique in Poland. This has been caused by the "rediscovery" of Biskupin - together with its unique collection of aerial photographs.

       Modern aerial archaeology combines the use of two great inventions, the aeroplane and the camera. The first aerial photographs however were taken before the invention of the aeroplane. It is thought that the first aerial photographs (fig. 1) were taken in October 1858 by Nadar (Gaspar Felix Tournachonm) soaring in a balloon over Paris (Duel p. 21). It is however a paradox, that the greatest advances in aerial photography were connected with military activity, despite the fact that this eminent photographic pioneer refused to help the military intelligence services in 1859 during the war

with Austria. War and the preparations for it played an important stimulating role in the origin and development of aerial photography. It was used by the military for the first time in the Civil War in the United States of America (Bewley, p. 11).

       The greatest development of aerial archaeology took place during the First and Second World Wars; the first steps in this direction however were taken already before 1914 and were connected with the use of military balloons. In 1906 in the course of exercises with military balloons, Lieutenant P. H. Sharpe took the first aerial photographs (both vertical and oblique) of an archaeological site, in this case the famous megaliths of Stonehenge (fig. 2). In 1908-1911 Italian engineers photographed the Forum Romanum and also the harbour at Ostia (Duel, p. 23-4). In 1912 a site thought to be a Roman fort was photographed from a balloon

by Kurt May and his friend Reinhard, but excavations carried out soon afterwards showed it was in fact a Roman villa (Bewley p. 12). If however the number of aerial photographs taken in 1914 could be counted in the dozens, by the end of the First World War the Royal Air Force alone had taken about half a million (Rączkowski p. 31).

       From several points of view, the First World War was the turning point. The introduction of the aeroplane opened practically unlimited scope of observation from the air. The War effort created conditions for the rapid improvement of the construction of aeroplanes, flying techniques and aerial intelligence gathering. This also affected photographic equipment, such as cameras, lenses and film. 

       The possibilities of the use of aerial photography for archaeology were perceived by a number of people serving during the First World in the Near East, the eastern parts of the Mediterranean basin and the northern parts of Africa. Here the remains of the past are still much more easily visible and there are better conditions for aerial photography. It was in these regions that the most famous pioneers of archaeological aerial photography were active: Antoine Poidebard, Jean Baradez, Léon Rey (France), Theodor Wiegand (Germany) (fig. 3), G. A. Beazeley, and Sir Aurel Stein (Great Britain) (Bewley, p. 10).

Apart from these people, at that time other archaeologists (amateurs) had their first experience with aerial photographs while engaged in military cartography, intelligence and the air-force (both as pilots as well as observers) in military service in different regions of the world in which fighting was taking place. It may therefore be said that the War not only was the stimulus for the development of the equipment used in the taking of aerial photographs, but also for the development of reflection on the subject.

       The experience gained by the pioneers of aerial archaeology during the First World War led to the formulation of the principles and the propagation of the technique. It is generally accepted that the person who brought this about was Osbert Guy Stanhope Crawford (fig. 4), a trained geographer, who, in the initial phases of the War, served in the section preparing and updating maps used for military

purposes (he was a geographer by training). In 1917-1918 he served as an observer in the Royal Flying Corps. During some of his flights over German positions in France and Germany, he identified some features he spotted as archaeological sites (Rączkowski, p. 46). After the end of the War he began to use the experience he had gained in the analysis and interpretation of aerial photographs from the point of view of their potential use as a source of knowledge about the past. In 1923 Crawford delivered a paper to The Royal Geographical Society on Air Survey and Archaeology - a paper published twice in 1923 and 1924 as the first description of this new technique.
       Crawford's activities led to a growth of interest in aerial photography among his contemporaries (G. P. M. Insall, G. W. G. Allen, C. E. Curwen, D. N. Riley). Their work led to many discoveries, and also deeper reflection on the technique of aerial photography and the photointerpretation. Another effect of their activities was the creation in Great Britain of an approach to the possibilities of the use of aerial photographs, which differed from, that which may be observed in the two decades between the World Wars on the continent.

       The pioneers of German aerial archaeology (Wiegand and Schuchhardt) took aerial photographs in the Near East and in Romania already in the First World War. The defeat of Germany in 1918 however hindered the development of this technique. Despite this, military photographs are known of archaeological sites (for example Roman roads) from Bavaria, which were taken in 1916 - 1918. They are currently preserved in the military Archives of the Bavarian Museum in Munich.
       An obvious increase in archaeological interest in aerial photography occurred in the 1930s. In this period, most of the sites photographed were those with an obvious form in the landscape, such as the earthworks of strongholds. After 1935 there was a wider use of aerial photography in archaeology and flights were carried out in a more planned way. A number of investigators turned to divisions of the Luftwaffe with requests to carry out aerial photography of specified archaeological sites. As a result of this situation, in 1937 an agreement was signed between the Ministry of Aviation and the Ministry of Science and Education in order to initiate collaboration between pilots and archaeologists. The Minister of Aviation declared that he would support the idea of the taking of aerial photographs of archaeological sites during training flights.
       One of the effects of this agreement was the planned participation of cadets from the flying school at Hildesheim in the excavations of the royal seat at Werla (Saxony) built in 916 for Heinrich I (fig. 5, 6). Thanks to the aerial photographs taken during these investigations, it was possible to discover architectural remains, and also determine the exact limits of the site. These photographs were the basis for the planning of the excavations of the 1937 season. Another result of the 1937 agreement was the visit of O.G.S. Crawford to Berlin in 1938. Both archaeologists and pilots were present at this meeting with the "father of aerial archaeology" at the so-called "evening of lectures". The papers presented at this meeting were later published.

       The first aerial photographs of archaeological sites from the area of the present Czech Republic and Slovakia are known from 1929 and 1931. As in the majority of the countries of central Europe however there were only a few flights organized by archaeologists and art historians. The result was the creation of a small collection of oblique photographs which (as in the case of the photographs of Biskupin) only illustrations of archaeological sites (Gojda 1993, p. 869).

       The history of Polish aerial photography in the period of interest here (1918-39) is rather modest, and one of the most important episodes is connected with the site at Biskupin mentioned previously.

       The earliest archaeological aerial photographs of an archaeological site in Poland were taken by pilots from the marine aviation corps in Puck in 1929. These were photos of the settlement site excavated by Józef Kostrzewski at Rzucewo (Okupny p. 215). The settlement itself cannot be seen on these photographs, which show its general location and geomorphological setting (fig. 7). This event however did not have any lasting consequences for Polish archaeology.

       Only the systematic taking of aerial photographs during the investigations carried out at the spectacular site at Biskupin had an effect on the interest in this topic. The experience gained by the authors of these photographs was utilized in the taking of similar ones (fig. 8) during the excavation of the early medieval stronghold at Kłecko (Poznan area), where Wojciech Kóčka took a series of photos (Rączkowski p. 22).

       The collection of photographs taken at Biskupin from a variety of types of balloons was supplemented by photographs taken from aeroplanes. Beginning in 1935, pilots of the third aerial division from Poznan and the fourth aerial division from Torun carried out several training flights over Biskupin during which oblique photos of the Biskupin peninsula (fig. 9, 10) and its surroundings (fig. 11) were taken together with photos of several other stronghold earthworks in the same region, as well as the historic centres of Gniezno and Poznan, where excavations were being conducted (Okupny, p. 218, 224).

       It is worth pointing out that a number of contemporary Polish archaeologists were aware that there was a need for the wider application of this technique on the same lines as in British archaeology. This was expressed for example in a number of popular articles, presenting the British achievements (Jażdżewski 1938 - ZOW).

       Biskupin, in Gąsawa commune to the east of Poznan, is a wooden fortified settlement (fig. 12) of the Lusatian Culture of the Hallstatt period (c. 700 BC), discovered by chance in 1934. It was situated on a swampy island, which the builders had strengthened with a breakwater of several rows of wooden piles (fig. 13). It was surrounded by a frame-built timber wall 3m thick, and the interior was regularly built-up with parallel rows of similar-sized buildings (fig. 14, 15).

       Our knowledge of the site is based on the results of investigations carried out in the years 1934-1939 by an expedition from Poznan University led by Józef Kostrzewski. It is worth emphasizing:

the unparalleled spectacular nature of these discoveries seen against the background of the contemporary state of northern European archaeology,

their modern nature especially the interdisciplinary manner in which the investigations were carried out and an awareness of the need for the most precise manner of documentation possible in that period (including the method of aerial photography),

the awareness of the need to protect the uncovered remains and the reconstruction for the modern visitor,

It is not possible today to assess the significance of the discovery of this site nor the value which was attached to the excavations (in the organization and promotion of which were involved the highest state and ecclesiastical authorities), without taking into account the contemporary historical and political context of Poland and the main currents of discussion carried out by archaeologists entangled in contemporary concerns. Some elements of this atmosphere can be reconstructed and illustrated on the basis of the preserved archival photographs.

1/ The real archaeological dimension. The fact of the discovery of this site and especially the modern style and tempo of the excavations and their documentation were an undeniable success of Polish archaeology on an international scale (fig. 16), and this is evidenced by:

the rank and number of visitors who made a 'pilgrimage to the site' incl. president, cardinals, generals, excursions etc.) about 500 000 people (of which half were foreigners) visited Biskupin in the period 1935-1939,

participation in exhibitions, shown in many museums in Europe and the USA,

2/ The extemporaneous ethnic argument in the conflict over the contemporary political situation of the region. Biskupin lies in the eastern fringes of Great Poland, one of the larger regions of Poland in the history of which the relationship between the neighbouring Poles and Germans played a significant role (fig. 17). In the period of the Partitions, when there was no Poland on the map of Europe, this region was in the Prussian partition. The discussion over the "Slavicness" or "Germanness" of these lands was conducted at many levels. Biskupin was announced to be a "Prehistoric Slavic stronghold", thus putting an end to debate on this topic.
3/ The real social-political dimension: In order to make its mark in Europe, the young state (which came into existence only in 1918 after 120 years absence from the maps of Europe) needed to have real successes in every field of activity.

       The scale of the investigations at Biskupin is reflected in the photographic material in the archives preserved in the archaeological museum in Poznan, which - assessed in detail - allows several types of analysis. In the next part of our presentation, we will use this material as illustrative material and in particular we will show material concerning aerial photography. The material preserved in the archives of the Archaeological Museum in Poznan comprises: plans, a folder of press cuttings (fig. 16, 17, 18), and - of most interest to us here - a full series of

the photographic documentation (scientific and occasional) of the excavation campaigns, together with the original inventory (fig. 19), containing descriptions of the subjects of all the photographs taken. This collection contains 2 300 photographs, of which 150 are aerial photographs of the site and other 100 are photographs which document the application of various techniques and the atmosphere that accompanied them.

       The use of aerial photographs for the purposes of documentation during the investigations at Biskupin on the one hand emphasizes this unique position of Biskupin in Polish archaeology, and on the other, the use of this technique (and others) was probably possible only because of the exceptional status of the discoveries made at this site.

       The aerial photographs taken at Biskupin primarily constituted documentation of the discovered constructions. The extensive size of the explored area forced the use of this method, since photographs taken from ground level were inadequate (because they were too oblique), while those from a ladder (fig. 20) could cover an area only 40 metres square.
       In 1935 two assistents of Kostrzewski - Zdzisław Rajewski and Wojciech Kóčka,

designed a small spherical balloon of a diameter of 3m and filled with 23m³ of hydrogen which gave a lift of 3.5kg (fig. 21). The design of this balloon was based on that of one used in 1929 to take vertical photographs of buildings at Megiddo in Palestine. The Biskupin balloon was tethered (fig. 22) and was used to take vertical views of the site from heights 5 - 150 m (it was not possible to achieve greater heights because of the weight of the steel tether used). The line was fixed to two hand-operated windlasses. The shutter of the camera suspended below the balloon was released with an electric mechanism (fig. 23) connected by a wire with a battery on the ground. After each exposure the balloon had to be brought back to earth to change the plate, the photos were taken on 9x12 and 13x18 cm glass plates (Okupny, p. 216-8).

       Another means of supporting the cameras utilised in the expeditions at Biskupin from 1937 was a large tethered military observation balloon with a basket for the camera crew (fig. 24, 25). The appearance of this equipment at Biskupin was the effect of the visit (fig. 26) to the excavation in September 1937 of the Polish Marshal Śmigły - Rydz (Rajewski 1938, s.9). From this balloon photos were taken with a hand-held camera on 9x12 cm glass plates from the heights of 50 - 110 m, the photographs encompassed therefore a considerably greater area of the investigated structures than those taken from the small balloon (Okupny, p. 218). Photographs were also taken from the basket of a free-flying balloon (fig. 27), which the members of the expedition flew from Biskupin to Stargard in 1936. It was a propaganda stunt, and the crew (fig. 28) threw information leaflets about Biskupin from the balloon.

       Aerial photographs were also taken in later excavations in 1946-1947, but it was impossible to continue this in subsequent years.
       This carefully conceived, designed and efficiently executed action resulted in several hundred aerial photographs of excellent quality. These were utilised many times in archaeological publications, as well as in popular literature and propaganda material concerning the discoveries at Biskupin, and also shown in exhibitions, including ones abroad. Before 1939, the Poznan archaeological milieu and in particular the Biskupin expedition was the only one in Poland in which such photographs were taken and which do not differ in any way from the best British ones of the period. Unfortunately a significant proportion of the negatives were lost during the Second World War, but happily a complete series of prints has survived in the archives in Poznan, but they have never been analysed or published in their entirety (Okupny, p. 224).

       The quality of the aerial documentation has allowed the main aim to be reached - the aerial photographs constitute an objective record of the discoveries give new generations of investigators the possibility of reaching their own interpretation of the site at Biskupin, and allow the verification of the original field documentation left by the excavators and the veracity of reconstructions based on them.

       In summary, it may be said that the general picture of the development of the technique of aerial photography in this region in the two inter-War decades is very modest in comparison with Western Europe. Apart from the episodes described above, there is a lack of other evidence documenting the use of this method, and the picture is even worse in Eastern Europe. One may seek the causes of such a situation in several factors:
1/ Lack of tradition : - the countries of Central Europe were mostly reborn new states which had not previously possessed a technical infrastructure (aeroplanes) nor access to areas with spectacular ruins which had so fascinated the pioneers of these techniques.
2/ In the case of Poland - not enough interest among the archaeological milieu in the cognitive possibilities of these methods for them to become widely applied, even when the technical ability was present. This is shown by the multi-aspectual collaboration between archaeologists and the military in the course of the excavations at Biskupin, or the earlier collaboration with the air-force at Rzucewo. It was not possible for us to verify whether or not permanent collaboration could have been established, as was the case in Great Britain or Germany. Would a young and weak state , in the tense political climate of the times, have permitted access to aerial documentation of large areas?

       Aerial photographs are used for various purposes in different aspects of life and at different periods of the history of every country, beginning at its birth. One might say that even if they were not created for the purposes of archaeology, they exist in numerous archives of various types and document information also of interest to archaeologists. This information is to a greater or lesser degree subject to secrecy, but the older the photos are, the greater is the possibility of access to larger areas of coverage, which are uncensored. It should be clearly stated that the development of this technique was largely halted after the Second World War for political reasons. Nevertheless the quality and priceless nature of the information contained in some of these photos can be demonstrated by photos taken in the 1950s for cartographic purposes and still having the status of "secret".
       At the end we may add the encouraging thought that almost every country in the region discussed here has its own archaeological aerial records, all that has to be done is to rediscover it and bring it out of the secret archives...

From military to civilian: A brief history of the early development of aerial photography for archaeology, (in:) Oexle (ed.) , Aus der Luft - Bilder unserer Geschichte: Luftbildarchäologie in Zentraleuropa, Dresden, pp. 10 - 21

Bohemia from the air: seven decades after Crawford, Antiquity, v. 67, no. 257, December, pp. 869 - 875

Balloon Photography and Archaeological Excavation, Antiquity, v. VI, no. 22, June, pp. 148 - 155

Grody i osadnictwo grodowe Wielkopolski wczesnohistorycznej (od VII do XIII wieku), Poznań

Fotografia lotnicza w archeologii. Uwagi metodyczne. (in:) Śmigielski W. (ed.), Nauki przyrodnicze i fotografia lotnicza w archeologii, Poznań, pp. 215 - 244

Sprawozdanie z organizacji prac w Biskupinie w pow. żnińskim w latach 1938-39, (in:) J. Kostrzewski (ed.) , Gród prasłowiański w Biskupinie w powiecie żnińskim. Sprawozdanie z badań w latach 1936 i 1937 z uwzględnieniem wyników z lat 1934-1935, Poznań, pp. 1 - 14

Sprawozdanie z organizacji prac w Biskupinie w pow. żnińskim w latach 1938-1939 i 1946-1948, (in:) J. Kostrzewski (ed.), III Sprawozdania z prac wykopaliskowych w grodzie kultury łużyckiej w Biskupinie w powiecie żnińskim za lata 1938-1939 i 1946-1948, Poznań 1950, pp. 1 - 11